Tuskegee Experiment Essay Example

Tuskegee Experiment Essay In 1932, in the area surrounding Tuskegee, Macon County, Alabama, the United States Public Health Service (PHS) and the Rosenwald Foundation began a survey and small treatment program for African-Americans with syphilis. Within a few months, the deepening depression, the lack of funds from the foundation, and the large number of untreated cases provied the government’s reseachers with what seemed to be an unprecedented opportunity to study a seemingly almost â€Å"natural† experimentation of lantent syphilis in African-American men. What had begun as a â€Å"treatment† program thus was converted by the PHS reasearchers, under the imprimatur of the Surgeon General and with knowledge and consent of the Prewsident of Tuskegee Institute, the medical director of the Institute’s John A. Andrew Hospital, and the Macon County public health officials, into a persecpective study-The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male (Jones1-15). Moreover, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, which began in 1932 and was terminated in 1972 by the protest of an enraged public, constituted the longest nontherapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history. Since the premise on which the experiment was based did not involve finding a cure or providing treatment, the question then remains why did the study begin and why was it continued for four decades? In Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphhilis Experiment, James Jones describes the fate of the 600 Black victims. Ultimately, 399 men, who were in the late or tertiary stages of syphilis, participated in the experiment. In addition, 201 men who were free of the disease were in cluded in the study. Both groups of men were neither told the truth about their ailment or lack thereof, nor were they informed that they were part of a medical study. We will write a custom essay sample on Tuskegee Experiment specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Tuskegee Experiment specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Tuskegee Experiment specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Medical personnel assured the subjects that they were suffering from â€Å"bad blood,† a euphemism that in the local parlance, reffered to many ailments. None of the men knew that the â€Å"bad blood† which coursed through their veins was contagious. None understood how the disease was transmitted; no one explained to them that congenital syphilis was passed on from female to fetus. It was an experiment based on deception, a characteristic that it retained for the next forty years. Through a historical analysis of the xperiment several questions arise, particularly the issues of the men’s participation in the experiment and the black professionals who witnessed the study. Why did these Black men take part in this study? Why did the Black healtth professionals not challenge the study? The answers to these questions are interconnected and lies captive in a term Jones calls racial medicine (Jones 15). Prior to 1932 information concering the origin, conception, devel opement, and the complications of untreated syphilis was known to medical science. The one element left to be known about this diease was a cure. By this time, scientist were well aware of the fact that syphilis was a highly contagious diease caused by treponema pallidum, a microscopic organism resembling a corkscrew. The disease may be acquired, meaning passed from person-to-person either during sexual intercourse or mixing of bodily fluids, or congenital meaning obtained through birth. The disease progresses in three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The characteristics for the first two stages exhibit chancre sores, various mild rashes, bone and joint pain, as well as cardiac palpitations. Following the secondary stage is a period of latency where all symptoms associated with syphilis disappear, a period that may last from a few weeks to thirty years. At this time, delusion of health is shattered and the symptoms revisit with a harsher intensity. It is at the tertiary stage that the majority of the damage is done. Tumors begin to coalesce on the skin forming huge ulcers covered with a crust of dried exuded matter. Bones are attacked by tumors and in some cases eaten entirely away. The tumors also attack the walls of the heart or blood vessels causing aneurysms, balloon like sacs filled with blood. If the aneurysm burst, death is instantaneous. Syphilis can attack the brain in a condition known as paresis, in which the brain softens and produces paralyis and insanity. Optic nerves can be attacked causing blindness or inflicting deafness (Jones 2-4). The progression of th de disease in each stage had been known prior to 1932, the year the Tuskegee experiment began (Jones 2-4). In fact a similar study that observed the effect of untreated syphilis in man took place some forty years before Tuskegee in an experiment that took place n Olso, Norway (Jones 10). It is from this first study that much of the knowledge known about untreated syphilis previous to Tuskegee was uncovered. The difference, however, is that the men in Olso went untreated because there was no known treatment and in the case of Tuskegee treatment was deliberately withheld. In fact the discovery of the Salvaran treatment for syphilitic patients prompted the end to the Olso study in 1910. Racial differences create a plethora of opportunities through which a people can be labeled inferior. Jones explains that physicians and scientist have always been fascinated by the â€Å"large number of ways in which blacks appeared to be different† (Jones 16). Thus, the question Jones’ presents of racial medicine becomes a more contingent issue for why the experiment began and continued for decades. Preceding this fascination or preoccupation with establishing differences between the races is a reason, one that Jones describes as: There was a compelling reason for this prepccupation with establishing physical and mental distinctions between the races, one that transcended the isinterested pursuit of empirical facts. Most physicians who wrote about blacks during the nineteenth century were southerns who believed in the existing social order. They justified slavery, and after its abolition, second-class citizenship by insisting that blacks ere incapable of assuming any higher station in life here ‘different’ unquestionably meant ‘inferior. ’ Th us, medical discourses on the peculiarities of blacks offered, among other things, a psudoscientific rationale for keeping blacks in their places (Jones 17). Jones discusses the racial attitudes that help to sustain this study. White physicians and scientist shared in the prevalent racism that saturated the United States especialy the South. Many of the white physicians involved were convinced that syphilis was a black disease and that it was more prevaleent among blacks then whites. Jones concludes, â€Å"whether by accident or design, physicians had come dangerously close to dipicting the syphilitic black as the represenative black† (Jones 28). To deny that race played a role in the Tuskegee study is naive. All 600 subjects (399 experimantals and 201 controls) were Black. The officials in charge of the study failed to obtain informed consent from the subjects in a study of a disease with known risk to human life. little respect was shown to the subjects. The reseachers were not compelled to explain to the men whatexactly was occurring to them. The reasearchers were evidently never troubled by any ethical questions raised by the study of this nature. Denying the men salvarsan or mercury in the 1930’s, current treatments for syphilis during this time, or penicillin after is was discovered and identified as a cure for syphilis in the 1940’s. By failing to obtain informed consent and offering incentives for participation, it is quite obvious that the PHS doctors were performing unethical annd immoral experiment on human subjects. From the moment the experiment begun, the immorality of the experiment was blatantly apparent. Instead of obtaining consent from the participants, the PHS offered the men incentives to participate: free physical examinations, free rides to and from the clinics, hot meals on examination days, free treatment for minor ailments, and a gurantee that a burial stipend would be paid to their survivors. This modest stipend of $50. 0 represented the only form of burial insurance that many men had (153). When the subjects were administered painful lumbar punctures in 1933 ( commonly known as a spinal tap where a needle is driven into one’s vertebrate and fluid is suctioned from the spinal cord, a procedure that exposed the patients paralysis or death) their cooperation was obtained under false prete nses. Dr. Vonderlehr, one of the leading reseachers in the study, wrote letters to each patient inviting him to a special experiment, adding that â€Å"remember this is your last chance for special free treatment† (Jones 127). The physicians continued to conceal the truth that this procedure was diagnostic rather than therapeutic by telling the patients that they were receiving â€Å"spinal shots† (Jones 127). To understand why so many black men welcomed the opportunity of receiving what appeared to be free health care, though they received bad treatment, one must understand the social and economic conditions of rural Macon County, Alabama at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Census of 1930 revealed that blacks made up 82 percent of Macon’s twent-seven thousand residents. Blacks outnumbered whites four to one and neraly half of the resisdents lived below poverty level. It was all to common to visit houses without indoor plumbing and no other means of water supply save a swallow well that occupied the same territory as that of sewage (Jones 61). The fifth chapter of Jones’s Bad Blood: The Tuskegge Syphillis Experiment entitled â€Å"The Dr. Ain’t Taking Sticks† describes the destitute environment in which Blacks lived: housing conditions were terrible. The typical dwelling was a tumble-down shack ith a dirt floor, screens, little furinature, a few rags for bedding, and a privy only when underbrush was not nearby. Drinking water came from an uncovered, shallow well, often totally unprotected from direct surface drainage. The people who lived in his rural slum ate a pellagrous diet [of] salt pork hominy grits, cornbread, and molasses formed the standared fare of the majority Macon County’s black residents, while red meat, fre sh vegitables and fruit, or milk seldom appeared on their tables. As a result, chronic malnutrition and a host of diet-related illnesses were serious health problems (Jones 62). Medical facilities were present, however, the treatment that each gave was limited. The United States Veterans hospital located on the campus of Tuskegge Institute did not have an outpatient clinic and did very little for the surrounding community. The intellectual aloofness found at the Veterns Hospital was similar at the John A. Andrews Hospital also located in the vicinity of Tuskeggee Insistute. The John A. Andrews Hospital did have an outpatient clinic but the impact that the hospital had on the community was not substantial (Jones 64). It was the norm for many Blacks to go to from â€Å"cradle to the grave† without having experiencing any type of medical care (Jones 65). Since doctors were only consulted in dire emergencies, many blacks suffered with syphilis and its complications. So in 1930 when the Surgeon General announced that a syphilis control program was being created in Macon County blacks werein some cases excited about seeing a doctor and in other cases instructed by their employer to see a doctor without any explanation. Initially, the program was indeed a type of syphilis control program. Later that year, however, it was recommended that the syphilis control program be terminated and plans for a comprehensive health and welfare program be instituted. In 1932, the United States Public Health Service officers returned to Tuskegee and converted the treatment program into a â€Å"nontherapeutic human experiment† (Jones 90). The goal of the progam now was to aquire as many autopsies as possible that will support the argument that people of African descent reacted differently to venereal diseases such as syphilis and that this disease in character was a black disease. Once the Tuskegee expiriment began it thrived from its own momentum. The â€Å"intellectuals† who were aware of the study did not reject to it. The black professionals affiliated with Tyskegee institute at the time the experiment was taking place did not object either. The question remains why did Black healtth professionals not challenge the study? The information concerning the details of the experimnet was not at all private; the disclosure of information concerning Tuskegee seemed very calculated. In fact they appeared in many of the major health and medical journals of the time period,places were the average person may not ordinarily look. However, Black health professionls like Dr. Paul B. Cornely of Howaed University,a black public health leader since the 1930’s knew about Tuskegee but did not object. He understood the nature of the study and followed it closely, never questioning it. He explained in retrospect: I was there and I didn’t say a word. I saw it as an academician. It shows you how we looked at human beings, especially blacks who were expendable I have guilt feeling about it, as I veiw it now because I considered myself to be an activist. I used to get hot and bothered about injustices and inequality, yet right under my nose something is happening and I’m blind (Smith 103). Many Black professionals hide behind the suppositions that what was occuring at Tuskegee Institute would draw much needed attention to the desolate social, economic, and medical environments of the Black community. There is no doubt that the history of racial subjugation, class-consciousness, and professional status contributed to the response or lack thereof from black professionals and intellectuals. Historian Tom W. Shick argued that black medical professionals did not or could not challenge the experiment because they were not seen as equals in the medical profession, i. e. blacks did coexist with whites (Journal 103). Jones states that class-consciousness permits black professionals to deny that the experimnet was racist. There existed a dilemma for the black professionals involved: â€Å"on the one hand scientific energy and money were to be devoted to the study of diseased blacks, long ignored by science and medicine; but, on the other hand, the whole notion of framing the experiment as a study of the ‘the diseased’ instead of ‘disease’ smacked racism. (Jones 167). In Bad Blood, Jones presents the questions of why these 600 black men participated in the study and why did Black professionals allowed this experiment to continue without any objections. t is quite evident that ultimately, the reasons why the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begun and continued was because of raism. Racism created the economic and social impecunious conditions of the 1930’s that would allow these men to accept their offer. racism created the conditions that woul d allow black people to â€Å"turn the other cheek† as their brothers were being victimized, exploited and murdered. Racism in this case and many other instances of historical racial oppression offered no alternatives.

Hotel Rwanda Essay Example

Hotel Rwanda Essay Example Hotel Rwanda Essay Hotel Rwanda Essay The film Hotel Rwanda should be used in a world history program because it accurately depicts a significant historical event that people should be informed about and reflects several major themes of world history. The movie begins in Rwanda in the early 1990’s, when racial tensions between the two major ethnic groups, Hutus and Tutsis, have led to a civil war. After the Hutu president is killed, Hutu extremists begin a mass-slaughter of the Tutsis. Paul Rusesabagina, who is the manager of the Hotel des Milles Collines, is a Hutu, but his wife is a Tutsi.Tutsi neighbors run to Paul for shelter from the extremists, and at first, Paul is reluctant to provide them protection in the Milles Collines, but as the massacring intensifies and more and more innocent people need protection, Paul opens up the hotel to over 1,000 refugees. Paul struggles each and every day to protect the people living there, which include his family. The UN is unable to protect them, since they aren’t allowed to try to stop the genocide. But with help from UN officer Colonel Oliver, Paul is finally able to leave the hotel with the refugees and enter into safety.This film was fairly accurate. The characters behaved in ways that were fitting for the situations they were in, and the movie paid attention to details that were crucial to the events of the genocide, such as the RTLM â€Å"Hutu Power† radio broadcast, which â€Å"brainwashed† ordinary citizens into participating in the killings. The most important historical inaccuracy was the relationship between the Hutus and the Tutsis. The film made it seem as though there was very little social friction between the two groups, when in reality, they were very much divided.Before Europeans ruled in Rwanda, the Hutus and Tutsis were very loosely divided, but when the Germans came, they â€Å"†¦heavily favored the Tutsis and exacerbated and codified the formerly flexible divide between the two groups† (Carnegi e Council). After the Hutu revolution in the 1960’s, Hutus gained governmental control, and began discriminating against the Tutsis out of spite for the years they had been looked down on. The film took 30 years of rising tensions and condensed them, making it seem as though there had only been tension for a few months.However, it would be difficult to get the full scope of the history, due to the nature of movies, which typically focus on one specific aspect of an event rather than a more broad approach. Hotel Rwanda shows that this time period was a time of turmoil and chaos in Rwanda for the entire country, not just certain individuals. Obviously it was especially difficult for Tutsis to survive, but Hutus who were either married to Tutsis or didn’t take a firm political stand in either group also struggled. The situations the characters were in inspired immense fear, confusion and hopelessness, which left the audience feeling the same emotions.It is made very clear that many citizens had nowhere to turn for help, and those that did had to literally fight for their lives each day to get to safety. The movie also made it very clear that the rest of the world had closed its door on the Rwandan people. â€Å"Journalists, radio broadcasters, and TV news reporters covered the events live from Rwanda, until the violence escalated to fanatical levels and all foreigners were encouraged to evacuate. In short, the world knew of the genocide from its first day up until its conclusion† (World Without Genocide).Very little effort was made by more influential countries in the world to prevent the massacres. Overall, this film does justice to the genocide in its portrayal of it and leaves audiences feeling compassion for Rwandan people and wanting to do something to help prevent future genocides from occurring. Hotel Rwanda is a film that deserves to be used in world history programs. The first reason is that is raises awareness about one of the most tragic events to occur in the 20th century. Nearly 800,000 people were killed along with almost 2 million forced into refugee camps, all within a matter of 100 days.Many generations who didn’t grow up in the 1990’s aren’t well informed about this especially tragic event, and even more know nothing about the history that led up to it. This film encourages viewers to research more about the historical aspect of the social divisions in Rwanda and also magnifies just how damaging this genocide was. In addition to shedding light on an important event, the events in this film represent several recurring themes of world history, such as exploration and colonization and cross-cultural exchange. The most important of these themes is social stratification.Rwanda was divided into Hutus, Tutsis and Twa. The Tutsis were favored by European colonists because they believed the Tutsis â€Å"had more European characteristics, such as lighter skin and a taller build† (Abou t. com 20th Century History). This angered the Hutus, leading to even more social separation, and eventually a Hutu revolution and a civil war. These patterns are seen everywhere in world history, such as middle ages Europe, Ancient Greece, and the United States. Using this film in a world history class would reveal to students how prevalent social stratification is around the world, both in ancient and modern times.

Faulty Modifiers on SAT Writing Grammar Rule Prep

Faulty Modifiers on SAT Writing Grammar Rule Prep SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips One ofcomedian Groucho Marx's most famous jokes involves a pachyderm and some sleepwear. "One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas," he says. "How he got in my pajamas I don't know!" This joke is a play on a grammatical error called a misplaced modifier, where a descriptive phrase or word is placed in the wrong part of the sentence. The modifier errors on the SAT Writingmay not be quite as funny as Groucho's, but it's still important that youunderstand how they work. To that end, we'll be covering both basic grammatical concepts behind faulty modifiers and how to apply that knowledge on the test: Key Principle: Modifiers Must Be Next to What They Modify Dangling Modifiers: Modifying Phrases at the Beginning of Sentences Misplaced Modifiers: Modifier Order Within Sentences SAT WritingTips and Tricks Practice Questions Feature image credit:Valerievia Flickr Modifiers Must Be Next to the Thing They're Modifying The heading says it all: the most important concept to remember when dealing with modifiers is that they need to be next to the word they're describing. Sometimes these types of mistakes are obvious: Bird for sale by flightless woman. You have to figure that the bird is flightless, not the woman. The sentence should be: Flightless bird for sale by woman. However,on the SAT, this kind of error is oftenharder to spot. Take a look at the following sentence: Despite having finishedher test, the teacher wouldn't let Jenna leave until the class was over. There's nothing obviously wrong with this sentence, but let's think about what it's actually saying. Itstarts with the modifier "despite having finished her test." Logically, that phrase would seem to be describing Jenna, but since it's located next to "the teacher," the sentence is actuallysaying that the teacher has finished her test. That doesn't make much sense, sowe need to reorder the sentence to placethe modifier next to what it's modifying: The teacher wouldn't let Jenna leave until the class was over, despite the fact that she had finished her test. There are two main types of faulty modifiers: dangling modifiers, which involve phrases at the beginning of sentences (e.g. the example about Jenna), and misplaced modifiers, which involve the order of words and phrases within sentences (e.g. the example about the bird).Almost all of the faulty modifiers questions on the SAT deal with dangling modifiers, so we'll cover those first. Flightless birds, not flightless women Dangling Modifiers: Modifying Phrases at the Beginning of Sentences Questions about dangling modifiers only appear in the Improving Sentences section, but they're very common. You're essentially guaranteedto see at least one and may see as many four, so it's extremelyimportant that you understand how to approach them. Whena sentence begins with a modifying phrase, the intro must be immediately followed by a comma and then the noun it's describing. Incorrect sentences of this type start with modifying phrases that describe something other than the noun immediately following the comma. For example: Swimmingtoward the shore, alittle girl was building a sand castle. The "little girl" can't be "swimming toward the shore" and "building a sand castle" at the same time- something's missing. There are two ways to correct this kind of error: you can either replace the incorrect noun (in this case "little girl") with acorrect one, making any changes necessary to preserve the meaning of the sentence (fix 1), or you can turn the intro phrase into a clause that includes the the subject the phrase is meant to be describing (fix 2). These techniques sound more complicated than they are, so let's put them to use remedying our issue with the little girl who is in two places at once: Fix 1:Swimmingtoward the shore, I sawalittle girl building a sand castle. Fix 2:As Iswamtoward the shore, alittle girl was building a sand castle. Bothversions of the sentence are equally correct. You won't be asked to choose between the two options- instead, which approach makes more sense will depend on which part of the sentence is underlinedand whatanswer choices you're given. Keep in mind that some sentences will use this construction without asking about it (there will be anunrelated error instead), but look out for sentences that begin with verb participles (verbs ending in "ing," "ed," or "en") or prepositional phrases followed by a comma, especially if the underlined portion begins immediately after the comma. Situation 1: Main Clause Underlined If only the main clause is underlined, you'll need to pick the answer with the correct subject- what I refer to above as fix 1. For example: Incorrect:After seven straight hours of studying, Jose's brainwas fried. Correct:After seven straight hours of studying, Jose felt like his brainwas fried. Even though the distinction may not seem important, "Jose" and "Jose'sbrain" aren't actually the same- Jose's brain can't study. If only the second half of the sentence is underlined, the best way to correct thisissue is to replace the incorrect noun "Jose's brain" with the correct one "Jose." When you see an Improving Sentences question like this with the main clause underlined, you must find the answer choice or choices that start with the correct noun. Start by ruling out any answers that don't start with a noun or pronoun or that start with a noun other than the one the introductoryphrase is meant to be describing. If there is more than one answer choice remaining, check for other grammatical issues. Let's work through an example question from a real SAT: The sentence begins with the modifier "spread by rat fleas," which suggests that there may be a dangling modifier. The first step, then, is to determine what that phrase describes. It's definitely not "millions of people in medieval Europe," so we can know there's a modifier error and can rule out A. We can also eliminate B, which begins with a conjunction instead of a noun, and C, which begins with the unclear pronoun "this." With only D and E remaining, it's clear that "bubonic plague" is spread by rat fleas. Both answers are grammatical, but E is much simpler and clearer, so it must be the answer. Situation 2: Both Modifierand Main ClauseUnderlined You may also see dangling modifier questions presented with both the modifierand part, or all, of the main clause underlined, though this configuration is much less common. In these cases, the correct answer usuallyrewrites the sentence to eliminate the faulty modifier entirely, so it's difficult to anticipate what the correct choice will be. Instead, you want to approach these questions by process of elimination: Determine what the error is- figure out how the modifier is wrong so that you can rule out any choices that make the same mistake Eliminate answers that aren't grammatical- rule out any answers that create other issues, like run-ons or sentence fragments Choose clearest, most concise answer- of the remaining choices pick the one that expresses the pointwith the simplest structure and fewest extra words This process may seem a bit vague, so let's work through an official SAT example: First, let's figure out what's wrong with this sentence. It's a bit confusing because there's no obvious error. We can start by separating the two independent clauses to make what's happening in the underlined portion clearer: She was concerned about how Hank would react to the incident.In searching his face, he did not seem to be at all embarrassed or troubled. Now it's clearer that "in searching his face" is a modifying phrase, currently describing Hank(since "he" comes immediately after the comma). But based on the context, we know the person searching the face is actually "she," so we've located the error. We can rule out A, as well as D, which repeats the same error. Choice B swaps out "it" for "he," which doesn't solve the problem, because "it" is still not the person searching Hank's face. B is also wrong. Choices C and E both fix the misplaced modifier issue, but E is needlessly wordy ("being" is usually wrong), so C is the correct answer. Like sneakers, modifiers aren't meant to dangle (image credit: Carsten ten Brink) Misplaced Modifiers: Modifier Placement in Sentences Now that we've covered how to approach questions about modifiers at the beginning of sentences, let's talk about questions that deal with modifier placement within sentences.Questions on this topic can appear in both the Improving Sentences and Identifying Sentence Errors, but they are much less common than questions on dangling modifiers. The key rule for modifier placement- a modifier must be next to whatever it's modifying- remainsthe same. A misplaced modifier occurs when a modifier is separated from theword it's meant to describe: The werewolfmailed a package to the vampire full of garlic. Despite what the sentence says, it's clear that the "package" and not the "vampire" is meant to be full of garlic. In order to correct this error, we need to switch around the order of the phrases: The werewolfmailed a package full of garlic to the vampire. Because the exact nature of this kind of error can vary so widely, there's no single best way to approach the questions. However, many of these errors involve gerunds, especially on the Identifying Sentence Errors. Remember that like other modifiers gerunds must be next to what they're describing, i.e. whatever or whoever is doing the action. To help clarify, let'sgo through some SAT style examples, starting with thisIdentifying Sentence Errors question: On(A)hermost recent(B) vacation to Istanbul, Jill stumbled upon(C) a fantastic jewelry shop walking(D) through the massive market. No error. (E) Reading through this sentence, you may not immediately notice anything incorrect- in fact, it seems just fine. But before picking E, we need to check each of the other underlined portions. "On" is an idiomatically correct prepositionand "most recent" is a correct superlative, so we can rule out A and B. "Stumbled upon" includes a correctly conjugated verb and an idiomatically correct preposition, so C is also incorrect. This leaves only D, "walking." When a gerund is underlined, you must check placement- is the modifiernext to the noun that is walking? No, it's next to "jewelry shop," which can't walk. As such, D is the correct answer. Next, take a look at this Improving Sentences example: Kate Hudson beganacting at a young age, being Goldie Hawn's daughter. A.Kate Hudson beganacting at a young age, being Goldie Hawn's daughter. B.Kate Hudson beganacting at a young age, and she was Goldie Hawn's daughter. C.Kate Hudson, who as Goldie Hawn's daughterbeganacting at a young age. D. BeingKate Hudson, Goldie Hawn's daughterbeganacting at a young age. E.Kate Hudson, Goldie Hawn's daughter,beganacting at a young age. The misplaced modifier in this sentence is fairly obvious: "being Goldie Hawn's daughter" is clearly meant to describe "Kate Hudson" not "a young age." However, there's no answer choice that places the modifiernext to what it's modifying, so we need to narrow down the choices with process of elimination. We already ruled out A (which is the same as the original sentence), and we can eliminate C because it's a fragment. B, D, and E are all grammatically correct, so we need to pick the clearest and most concise answer. B is incorrect because it make the sentence much longer than it needs to be by splitting it into two independent clause. D doesn't work because the word order is confusing. Describing Kate Hudson as Goldie Hawn's daughter makes sense; describing Goldie Hawn's daughter as Kate Hudson doesn't. E is correctbecause itputs the (slightly rephrased) modifiernext to what it'smodifying. This snowman is misplaced; make sure your modifiers aren't. (Image credit: Richie Diesterheft) Applying Modifier Ruleson SAT Writing Questions Now that we've gone over all the rules you need to know, let's review some of the key points about how to spot and answer faulty modifierquestions on the SAT Writing section. What to watchfor: Prepositional phrases at the beginning of sentences where the clause after the comma is underlined Verb participles (verbs ending in "ing," "ed," or "en") at the beginning of sentences In ISE questions, underlined gerunds Rules to keep in mind: A modifier must be next to what it's modifying Gerunds must be next to the noun doing the action If a sentence starts with a descriptor, whatever comes after the comma must be the noun it’s describing Helpful SATWriting tips: Think about both what a modifier is currently describing and what it's actually meant to be describing Watch out for answers that fix the original modifier issue but are ungrammatical in another way Remember that there are a lot of different ways to fix faulty modifiers- use process of elimination to narrow down wrong answers rather than focusing on one specific way of correcting the error You will see these errors on the test, and they are likely unfamiliar, so make sure to review (and practice with) similar questions from real SATs Test Your Knowledge! Try out the principles we've discussed on these SAT Writing practice questions: 1. One of thespiciest cuisines in the world, Sichuan has recently become very popular in the United States. A.Sichuan has recently become B. Sichuan has most recently become known as C.Sichuan food has recently become D. the cuisines of Sichuan have become E. recently Sichuan has become 2. Thinking, perhaps, that their questionswon't be answered, the number of students who attend career counseling has dropped precipitously. A.the number of students who attend career counseling has dropped precipitously. B.the number of students who attend career counseling is droppingprecipitously. C.a dropping number of students are attending career counseling. D.students are attending career counseling in ever lower numbers. E.students, the number of whom attendcareer counseling has dropped precipitously. 3.By gazing sadly upon his owner, Tinawas convinced to give the puppy more food. A. Tinawas convinced to give the puppy more food. B.Tinawas convinced bythe puppy to give him more food. C.the puppy was convinced by Tina to give him more food. D. convincing Tina to give him more food, the puppy was. E.the puppy convinced Tina to give him more food. Answers: 1. C, 2. D, 3. E What's Next? Now that you've mastered faultymodifiers, take a look at some of our other SATgrammar guides on frequentlytestedtopics like illogical comparisonsand parallelism. If you're curious about the Improving Paragraphs, check out our guide the strangest type of SAT Writing question. Make sure you know the 8 key SAT Writing strategies, and if you're aimingfor an especiallyhigh score, check out our guide to getting an 800 on the SAT Writingfrom a perfectscorer. Looking to build a study plan? Read our complete plan to studying for the SAT, review what the SAT Writingactually covers, and take a practice test (or four!). Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? 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Article 1,2, &3 of the U.S. Contitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Article 1,2,  of the U.S. Contitution - Essay Example This system of separating and sharing powers is also known as a system of Checks and Balances (Reitz, 2006). Each of the three branches of government has strictly defined powers and obligations, and each one of them is subject to be checked and restricted by another branch. For example, while the President has the right to appoint judges and departmental secretaries, the nominees should achieve the approval of the members of the Senate. Similarly, the Congress can pass any legislation, unless it is vetoed by the President. Also, the Supreme Court can declare a particular piece of legislation to be unconstitutional, but the Congress and the State governments have the power to amend the Constitution (Macey, 2006). It has to be noted that as a result of this system of checks and balances, governance is at times inefficient and ineffective. But thats by intent rather than by accident. By compelling the various branches to be accountable to the others, each branch is prevented from usurping much power and become dominant. Allocating governmental authority amidst three separate branches is also helpful in preventing formations that are strongly in favor of the national government, in which case it will easily overpower the individual state governments, leading to poor democratic results. But there are more subtleties to the constitution than what is obvious. Consider the following passage, â€Å"Governmental powers and responsibilities intentionally overlap. For example, congressional authority to enact laws can be checked by an executive veto, which in turn can be overridden by a two-thirds majority vote in both houses; the President serves as commander-in-chief, but only the Congress has the authority to raise and support an army, and to declare war; the President has the power to appoint all federal judges, ambassadors, and other high government officials, but all appointments must be affirmed by

Aging and Ageism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aging and Ageism - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that Janet is has her resilience and ability to adapt to change. Being married to an alcoholic for 35 years greatly affected her and her ability to deal with turbulence and change. She has grown through adversity all of her life and now leads a content lifestyle still pursuing her dreams at age 71. She has taught me that a passion for life, varied interests and a deep desire to help others can create a joyful life.This study outlines that celebrating and recognizing transitions in life has always been important to Janet. At age 60 she was given a crone party where her family and friends took the opportunity to acknowledge her for where she had come from and where she currently was. It was a chance for her to share some of the lessons she has learned as she aged. Janet used the ceremony to release past issues like a smoking habit she quit many years before, menstruation as she had already gone through menopause, her teaching career, her husband, and the rai sing of her children. It was a unique way for friends and family to learn from her experiences as well as honor who for who she had become—and recognize that even though she was now considered at times by society as â€Å"over the hill†, that she had many years of fruitful opportunities still available.  Spirituality has always been a large influence on Janet and her outlook on life. She is deeply religious and believes that her thoughts and actions affect others as well as herself.

Understanding Health Risk Calculations :: Medical Medicine

Understanding Health Risk Calculations Health risks are all around us. They are present all the time, even when we sleep. Understanding our chances of being affected by one risk or another is a little like understanding our chances of winning the lottery. Numbers are often used to describe both our health risks and our chances or probability of winning the lottery, but this is where the similarity ends. When you buy a lottery ticket, your chances of winning depend on the number of possible combinations of numbers, not on whether you pick your favorite lucky numbers. Every time you buy a ticket, day after day, you have the same chance of winning, so your chance may always be, for example, one in a million. Nothing you or anyone else can do, short of cheating, can change that chance. Your chance of getting cancer from exposure to a chemical, however, like your chance of being killed in a vehicle accident, is not as easy to understand. This is because conditions that affect your chance are always changing. In the case of a vehicle accident, the road may be slippery, you or another driver may be drunk, your car or another vehicle may get a blow out at high speed, someone may fall asleep at the wheel, someone may throw a rock from an overpass, or an airplane may fall from the sky. All of these conditions and many more affect the chance of being involved in an accident. Sometimes you can control the conditions effectively, but most of the time you can't. Your chances of getting cancer from exposure to a certain chemical also depends on different circumstances or conditions. How long and the frequency at which you are exposed to a chemical, the amount or concentration, your own personal "make up" or susceptibility, and age are only a few of the variables to be considered when calculating your risk. Some of these conditions you can control, some you cannot. When a scientist calculates risks, she or he uses different types of numbers to represent different types of risks. For the risk of someone getting cancer from exposure to a certain chemical at a certain level over the course of a lifetime, there is no way to calculate an individual's exact chance. The best that a scientist can do is to calculate the chance of cancer occurring among, say, one million people.

American Agricultural Industry

By looking at the historical highs and lows and the American agricultural sector, these constitute a success story. The early 1900’s saw the golden age of agriculture with many thriving farmlands across the United States. With many farms, competition heightened and together with other economic factors resulted to the decline in the agricultural sector in the late 1920s up to the early 1930s resulting to the bankruptcy of many small farms. Abandoned lands became residential and commercial areas while the farms that remained became large farmlands that grew because of technological advancements.This transformed the composition of the agricultural sector from many small to medium farmlands to niches of large farmlands driven by large capital investments and technological development. Government policies conducive to the growth of the agricultural sector also contributed to the further development of the agricultural sector. Although many small farms closed, the long-term impact o f changes in the agricultural sector is the decline in farm poverty because of higher productivity and lower prices from the abatement of competition to a certain extent.Although, contemporary agricultural sector has not regained the position it reached during its golden age, growth is sustainable. (Gardner 1-3) The present agricultural sector survived because of four factors. First is capital investments, in which the banking and financial sector played an important part. Second is sustained productivity due to the development of technological tools and processes. Third is government support for researches in the agricultural sector to support sound policymaking.Fourth are the price-support programs of the government for stability that benefits farm owners by enabling them to gain sufficient profits to sustain continued production as well as consumers through lower prices so that food constitutes less than ten percent of the budget of consumption of American households. (Gardner 33 7) Methods of Production and Distribution Production and distribution in the American agricultural varies between the large and small farms.In the case of the large farms, the method of production targets the mass market and takes advantage of economies of scale and the mode of distribution is through mass- marketing outlets such as large supermarkets and other retail venues widely accessible to consumers. There are large farms that have been able to produce more than one agricultural product and these distribute products within economies of scope by bundling complementary goods. Large farms achieve economies of scale by using high-technology tools and processes and taking advantage of the abundance of workers in the labor market.Production in large farms use tractors to till land, small planes to spread pesticides over vast tracts of land, regulated water sprinklers, and other implements or even biotechnology by using pest or weather resistant varieties of seeds, vaccines for lives tock, and weight control systems. Although these involve costs, it is only on a one-time basis with cost-savings accruing in the long-term, and technology supports mass production. Large farms also depend on contractual workers for the necessary manual work and the abundance of unskilled labor especially coming from Mexico has allowed farms to cut back on cost.Due to cost-efficiency, large farms are able to cut-down on production costs and ensure high yields resulting to the ability to offer competitive market prices. As such, large farms are able to gain large supermarkets as distribution channels by offering a bigger mark-up price and gains for the retailers. (Paul and Nehring 526-528) In the case of the small, farms, production depends on its cost structure, revenue generation, and market so that methods of production implements basic technological tools and processes together with manual labor.The low scale of production of small farms led to niche marketing targeting only a lim ited market to ensure sales. Distribution channels are through on-site retail outlets, groceries, and specialty stores. (Paul and Nehring 526-528) Market Structure and Concentration Market structure of the American agricultural industry experienced greater degrees of concentration. Technological developments have segmented the American agricultural industry into two groups.One are the limited number of large farms that, in a way, can be considered as operating within an oligopoly or even nearing monopoly, except only for the government prerogatives to intervene to protect public policy. The other is small farms operating in an atomistic structure so that these do not have any significant effect on prices. There is a wide gap between the large and small farms in terms of productivity and market impact, with the large firms operating with large capital and employing high technology processes while households usually run small farms with limited workers using technological tools that f it their expenditure range.This resulted to high barriers to entry and exit. Contrary to estimates, the number of farms in the American agriculture sector experienced little change in the number of players since there are around 2. 1 million farms remaining with an average of . 25 percent decline rate. This is because the large firms have remained stable with expansion through the mergers or the acquisition of small farms. Movement occurs in the case of small firms through the entry of small farms specializing on certain agricultural products for niche markets to succeed in becoming part of the agricultural market.In addition, the difference in farmland also widened with the large farms producing on more than 1,000 acres of land while small farms only have less than 50 acres. (Ahearn, Yee, Korb 1182) Due to the segmentation of the American agricultural sector into a few large farms and many small farms, agricultural production is concentrated in the large firms contributing two-thir ds to the primary agricultural production in the United States of grains, fruits and vegetables, and livestock. The remaining one-third comes from small farms. (Ahearn, Yee, Korb 1183)Degree of Foreign Competition The degree of foreign competition in agricultural trade has grown because of the rise in the importation of agricultural products by the United States. This means that foreign competition has escalated due to the entry of agricultural imports, especially from developing countries. Projections show that in the next years the balance of trade would tip in favor of agricultural imports. During the 1980s up to the early 1990s, the United States is a string player in the export of agricultural products so that exports exceeded imports.By the mid-1990s, the surplus in agriculture trade has declined from $27. 3 billion to $10. 5 billion so that even if agricultural exports continue to increase, the volume of imports is also doubling. This was due to the rise in agricultural expor t prices as the American economy experienced growth. Economic growth also fuelled agricultural imports since Americans had the income to purchase foreign products that flooded the market due to price differences. (Jerardo) Now, growth and patterns of consumption would further fuel the growth in the imports of agricultural products.Rise in consumption together with the growing exposure of American consumers to international cuisine would continue to favor the importation of agricultural products. The consumption of foreign agricultural products should increase from 13 percent in the next years. (Jerardo) The major competitors of the United States in agricultural trade are China, India, Indonesia, Mexico and other agriculture-based economies in Latin America. These countries have large populations but these are also primarily agricultural economies owing to favorable climate conditions and low labor cost.Raw agricultural products come from Mexico and the Latin American countries becau se of geographic proximity while processed foods, which comprise 62 percent of food consumption of Americans, come from China, India and Indonesia. (Jerardo) Industry Leaders The agricultural sector in the United States is a mix of sub-sectors such as livestock or fruits and vegetables, seeds or feeds, packing or processing, and research and development. The industry leaders have stakes in many or all of these sub-sectors to ensure their competitiveness, industry position, and market share.Leaders in the agricultural sector comprise not really of the owners of farmlands but the firms controlling the agricultural sectors encompassing production, harvesting, processing, packaging, transport, and export of agricultural products. Large farms and agricultural firms have created clusters to gain access to these different sub-sectors. The clustering is dynamic depending on the shifts brought about by mergers and acquisitions. Currently, there are three clusters comprising the leading agric ultural sector players. (Helper 1288) Cargill/Monsanto.Cargill is a large firm engaged in the seed operations including research. It has a large capitalization and control over farmlands along the Ohio and Illinois River basin. Cargill purchased continental grain to gain access to corn, wheat and soybeans production along the Mississippi River for export. Monsanto is widely engaged in biotechnology and it has acquired patent over genetic products that ensure better yields through more resistant agricultural produce. Cargill entered into a joint venture with Monsanto in 1998 to gain access to the patented genetic products by offering its large capitalization as incentive.Cargill/Monsanto focuses on the production, processing, packaging, marketing, and export of seeds as well as corn, wheat and soybean products. (Heffernan) ConAgra is engaged in various sub-sectors as a top-three flour miller, top-four corn miller, top-three live stock feed producer, top-two in cattle slaughtering, to p-three pork processor, and top-five broiler producer and processor. United Agri Products, a subsidiary also engages in seeds, fertilizers, and other agricultural chemicals as well as biotechnology. It has its own packaging and processing plants as well as land and water transportation subsidiaries.It collaborated with ADM for the operation of a grain export facility. ConAgra also has a stake in production, processing, distribution and export of grains and livestock. (Heffernan) Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM) constitutes the largest processor of agricultural products such as corn, soybeans, wheat and cocoa. It collaborates with farm cooperatives to obtain raw agricultural products for processing or gained shares in firms engaged in agricultural production such as Growmark, Countrymark, United Grain, and Riceland.It has expanded into the other sub-sectors through a join venture with Novartis to gain access to seeds, biotechnology, and agricultural chemicals. It has also engaged in the raising, slaughtering and processing of livestock through joint ventures with Consolidated Nutrition and AGP. ADM has also been able to participate in the major sub-sectors. (Heffernan) Thus, the agricultural sector in the United States operates through corporate farming. Scarcity of Land Scarcity of agricultural land the in the United States pertains to the land use conversion and degradation of agricultural lands due to the use of chemicals.Land conversion decreases farm size while land degradation reduces productivity or causes shift in production from one agricultural product to another. This also pertains to the comparison of agricultural production with the consumption of agricultural products. In the United States, agricultural lands constitutes 46 percent of the land base, which remains a significant percentage share considering the massive industrialization of economic sectors. Of the 2. 3 billion acres of land comprising the United States, 442 million acres compris e croplands and more than 500 million acres of farmsteads, pastures and ranges.Conversion of agricultural lands is not significant so that in the past thirty years, only six percent of agricultural lands have been converted for other purposes. In terms of land degradation, reports have not raised alarm on the rate of land degradation. In terms of food consumption, the increase in food imports is fuelled by change in consumption patterns and not the inability of agricultural lands to support the food needs of Americans. Moreover, the U. S. remains a major food exported. Land scarcity does not constitute a major problem in the American agricultural sector.(Brady) Impact of Ethanol Production on Wheat Production and Cost to Consumers The government has implemented a fixed subsidy on ethanol at a floor rate of 40 cents for every gallon and a ceiling rate of 60 cents per gallon. The subsidy served as an incentive for production of ethanol as an alternative source of fuel in the United St ates. Relative to price of crude oil, ethanol is slightly cheaper depending on the volume of production. However, in the early 2000s, the price of crude oil skyrocketed to as much as $80 per barrel.The huge difference in price opened opportunities for the expansion of ethanol production because of the fixed subsidy together with the room for price increase that would still be below crude oil prices but constituting significantly higher prices than its previous market offering. This means that some farmers have shifted to the sowing of raw materials of ethanol leading to a decrease in the number of farmers and farmlands producing agricultural products. This in turn led to the rise in the prices of agricultural products such as wheat and even soybeans.In addition, other alternative sources of energy have gained momentum such as corn. Although corn receives lower subsidy compared to ethanol, the engagement of the agricultural sector in alternative sources of energy could significantly affect the volume of production of other agricultural products that would prove costly for consumers in the form of higher food prices. This effect has led to the emergence of the issue of food-fuel prioritization. (Tyner and Taheripour 1303) This is yet to be resolved and this would continue to become an issue in the agricultural sector until the next decade.Conclusion Outlook for the American agricultural sector in the future points to a positive situation because the United States would continue to become a major player in agricultural exports while providing agricultural products to the domestic market. However, there are a number of policy issues that requires due consideration. First, forecasts of balance of trade shows a further decline in agricultural trade surplus with some even suggesting the probability of trade deficit.This is because even if agricultural production experiences growth, the flood of imported food products could be greater, especially when these food produ cts become cheaper as the price of domestically grown agricultural products increase. This will have a significant adverse impact on the American agricultural sector. Even if there is no food shortage, the flooding of cheaper agricultural products could contribute to the decline in the agricultural sector. The government needs to assess its import policies to balance consumer demand with the viability of the agricultural sector.Second, land use and agricultural production needs assessment, since this falls within federal and state regulation, especially in the context of the food-fuel debate. The rising prices of agricultural products could be eased through the application of a flexible instead of a fixed subsidy rate together with the continued investment in research and development to justify the continuation of subsidies for ethanol and even the focus on fuel from corn. It has been thirty years since the government started implementing subsidies on ethanol but ethanol as an alter ative fuel has yet to become a commercial source of energy as intended.Thus, government policies on price support and agricultural research has played an important role in the growth of the American agricultural sector and this will not change in the future since the issues faced by the agricultural sector fall within the area of policymaking and subject to government regulation. Works Cited Ahearn, Mary Clare, Jet Yee, and Penni Korb. â€Å"Effects of Differing Farm Policies on Farm Structure and Dynamics. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 87. 5 (2007): 1182-1189. Brady, Michael. â€Å"Land Use, Value and Management. † 18 October 2005.USDA Economic Research Service. 26 April 2008 Gardner, Bruce. American Agriculture in the Twentieth Century: How it Flourished and What is Cost. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. Heffernan, William. â€Å"Study on Concentration in U. S. Agriculture. † 5 February 1999. Institute for Agriculture and Trade Po licy. 26 April 2008 Helper, Susan. â€Å"Empirical Research in an Increasingly Concentrated Industrial Environment: Discussion. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 89. 5(2007): 1288–1289.Jerardo, Alberto. â€Å"The U. S. Agricultural Trade Balance†¦ More than Just a Number. † 1 February 2004. USDA Economic Research Service. 26 April 2008 Paul, Catherine, and Richard Nehring. â€Å"Product Diversification, Production Systems, and Economic Performance in U. S. Agricultural Production. † Journal of Econometrics 126. 2(2005): 525-548. Tyner, Wallance, and Farzad Taheripour. â€Å"Renewable Energy Policy Alternatives for the Future. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 89. 5 (2007): 1303-1310.